Electrode Materials Cathodes and anodes for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries: crystal structure, average voltage, theoretical capacity (computed from the formula) and typical practical capacity, each with its sources.
Li-ion Na-ion
All Cathodes Anodes
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 100 150 300 500 700 1000 1500 3000 Specific capacity (mAh/g, log scale) Average voltage (V vs Li/Li⁺) LMO LCO NMC111 NMC811 NCA LFP LTO Silicon Graphite Lithium metal
LiCoO₂
Structure Layered (α-NaFeO₂ type) · Trigonal R3 m (No. 166) Voltage ≈3.8 V vs Li/Li⁺ [32 , 33 , 34 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 97.87 g/mol) = 273.8 mAh/g (1 Li per LiCoO₂)
Practical ≈140–150 mAh/g
Specific energy ≈560 Wh/kg (material level, Q × V)
Cycle life Good when charged to ~4.2 V; fades faster at higher cut-off voltages. High volumetric energy density Simple, mature manufacturing Cobalt is costly and supply-constrained Only about half of the lithium can be cycled LiNi₁/₃Mn₁/₃Co₁/₃O₂
Structure Layered (α-NaFeO₂ type) · Trigonal R3 m (No. 166) Voltage ≈3.7 V vs Li/Li⁺ [32 , 37 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 96.46 g/mol) = 277.9 mAh/g (1 Li per formula unit)
Practical 150 mAh/g (3.5–4.2 V); 200 mAh/g up to 5.0 V
Specific energy ≈560 Wh/kg (material level, Q × V)
Cycle life Good; a common choice for long-life electric-vehicle cells. Balanced capacity, safety and cost Less cobalt than LCO Still contains cobalt Lower voltage than LCO LiNi₀.₈Mn₀.₁Co₀.₁O₂
Structure Layered (α-NaFeO₂ type) · Trigonal R3 m (No. 166) Voltage ≈3.7 V vs Li/Li⁺ [38 , 39 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 97.28 g/mol) = 275.5 mAh/g (1 Li per formula unit)
Practical ≈200 mAh/g
Specific energy ≈740 Wh/kg (material level, Q × V)
Cycle life >95% capacity kept after 100 half-cell cycles; Ni-richer grades fade faster. High capacity Little cobalt Particle cracking and surface reactivity Needs careful processing (moisture, Li residues) LiNi₀.₈Co₀.₁₅Al₀.₀₅O₂
Structure Layered (α-NaFeO₂ type) · Trigonal R3 m (No. 166) Voltage ≈3.7 V vs Li/Li⁺ [32 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 96.08 g/mol) = 278.9 mAh/g (1 Li per formula unit)
Practical ≈199 mAh/g
Specific energy ≈740 Wh/kg (material level, Q × V)
Cycle life Good, but sensitive to high temperature and deep cycling. High capacity and specific energy Aluminium improves stability Contains cobalt and nickel Thermal stability lower than LFP LiFePO₄
Structure Olivine · Orthorhombic Pnma (No. 62) Voltage ≈3.4–3.5 V (flat) vs Li/Li⁺ [32 , 35 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 157.75 g/mol) = 169.9 mAh/g (1 Li per LiFePO₄)
Practical ≈160–165 mAh/g
Specific energy ≈570 Wh/kg (material level, Q × V)
Cycle life Very long; the most durable common cathode. Cheap, abundant iron; no cobalt or nickel Very safe and long-lived Lower voltage and energy density Needs carbon coating and small particles to conduct LiMn₂O₄
Structure Spinel · Cubic Fd3 m (No. 227) Voltage ≈4.1 V vs Li/Li⁺ [32 , 36 , 55 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 180.81 g/mol) = 148.2 mAh/g (1 Li per LiMn₂O₄)
Practical ≈120 mAh/g
Specific energy ≈490 Wh/kg (material level, Q × V)
Cycle life Moderate; manganese dissolves at elevated temperature and poisons the anode. Cheap, non-toxic manganese 3D Li⁺ pathways: good power Lowest capacity of the common cathodes Mn dissolution shortens life C₆ → LiC₆
Structure Layered (graphene sheets, AB stacking) · Hexagonal P63 /mmc (No. 194) Voltage ≈0.1–0.2 V (staging plateaus) vs Li/Li⁺ [32 , 42 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 72.07 g/mol) = 371.9 mAh/g (1 Li per C₆ (LiC₆), per gram of carbon)
Practical ≈350–360 mAh/g
Cycle life Long; the standard anode of commercial Li-ion cells. Low, flat potential gives high cell voltage Cheap and long-lived Near 0 V: lithium plating risk at fast charge or low temperature Capacity limited to LiC₆ Si → Li₁₅Si₄
Structure Diamond cubic (amorphous once lithiated) · Cubic Fd3 m (No. 227) Voltage ≈0.4 V vs Li/Li⁺ [40 ]
Theoretical 3.75 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 28.09 g/mol) = 3578.6 mAh/g (3.75 Li per Si (Li₁₅Si₄), per gram of silicon)
Practical Thousands of mAh/g in principle; usually blended into graphite
Cycle life Short for pure Si: about 280% volume expansion cracks particles and the SEI. Roughly ten times the capacity of graphite Abundant and cheap Huge volume change on lithiation Continuous SEI growth consumes lithium Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ → Li₇Ti₅O₁₂
Structure Spinel ('zero-strain') · Cubic Fd3 m (No. 227) Voltage 1.55 V (flat) vs Li/Li⁺ [41 ]
Theoretical 3 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 459.08 g/mol) = 175.1 mAh/g (3 Li per Li₄Ti₅O₁₂)
Practical ≈170 mAh/g
Cycle life Excellent: the lattice barely changes size, so particles do not degrade. No volume change ('zero strain') Safe: far above lithium-plating potential High potential lowers cell voltage and energy Lower capacity than graphite Li
Structure Body-centred cubic metal · Cubic Im3 m (No. 229) Voltage 0 V (reference) vs Li/Li⁺ [43 ]
Theoretical 1 × 96485 C/mol ÷ (3.6 × 6.94 g/mol) = 3861.9 mAh/g (per gram of lithium)
Practical ≈3860 mAh/g
Cycle life Limited by dendrites and low Coulombic efficiency; a key target for solid electrolytes. Highest capacity and lowest potential possible Enables Li–S and solid-state cells Dendrites can short-circuit the cell Reacts with liquid electrolytes 